Status of Muslim Women

Women have generally been subjected to stiffling oppression and stultifying suppression, resulting in their subordination throughout the history irrespective of  socio-economic, demographic and religious differences. The inferior status assigned to women is a result of social evaluation of her biological activities of child bearing and child rearing as the only one’s appropriate to her which give fulfillment in life. The stereotypes are formed on the basis which become part of cultural tradition which validate and justify their inferior status and account for their dependency discrimination and degradation.

Since men and women considered as two wheels of vehicles of a society, both wheels should work equally to move the vehicle of society. Women constitute approximately half of the world’s population yet they are placed at various disadvantageous positions due to gender differences. They have been victim of violence, exploitation and discrimination. Throughout the world women are still relegated to second class status that makes them more vulnerable to abuse and less able to protect themselves from discrimination. History has evidences that woman have been regarded as the properties of men.

The modern age is the age of transformation in the status of women all over the world. Women struggled towards new freedom and identities. This age witnessed a surge of consciousness, a proliferation of women’s organization and global conferences and the movement of millions of women towards the process of modernization.

Index of modernization of any society is the position of its women vis-à-vis men, the more balanced the opportunity structure for men and women, the large the role women have in society and consequently the higher their status. In a developing society it is essential that both men and women play equal and important role in the development efforts. Improvement in inferior status of women, therefore, is necessary for modernization and development.

            In 1973 the Percy Amendment to U.S. foreign Assistance Act required that U.S. bilateral aid should pay particular attention to promote and project integrating women into development efforts.

The U.N. International Year 1975, Decade for women 1976-1985; and U.N. conference in Mexico city, Copenhagen; Nairobi, Beijing all nourished the international connection among women.

The women and development lobby have put pressure on National Government to recognize the role of women in combating poverty, illiteracy and high birth rate Governments have also been invited to eliminate all forms of discrimination based on  sex.

Inspite of various ameliorative efforts for the improvement in the status of women their condition has not improved much. The U.N. Report on Women in 1995-1996 clearly states that “The world’s 2.8 billion women remain humanity’s largest marginalized group”.

In 1979 the United Nation adopted the convention on the elimination of all form of discrimination against women. (CEDAW). This is known as the international Bill of women’s right.

In 1980 U.N. Report it was reported that women constitute half of the world’s population, perform nearly two third of its work hours, receive one tenth of the world’s income and less than one hundredth of the world’s property. Statistics disclose that women comprise 66 percent of world’s illiterates and 70 percent of world’s poor.

In India the situation of women is very bleak. Women have been socially, economically, physically, psychologically and sexually exploited sometime in the name of religion and sometimes by the custom and tradition.

In 1931 Jawahar Lal Nehru accepted equal political and legal rights of women and introduced the concept of equal obligation alongwith equal rights in fundamental right resolution, passed by Congress in its Karachi session. Nehru held that without economic freedom other aspects of equality would be prove superficial. Women must therefore be trained to participate “In every department of human activity.”

The Indian constitution is known to be very comprehensive that recognize the ideal of equality, regards women as equal as men. Not only this women are accorded special protection keeping in view their age old discrimination. The following fundamental rights in the constitution are particularly important from the perspective of human rights of women. Article 14 provide equality before law. It also does not make any differentiation on the basis of caste, creed and sex. Article 37 empowers the state to enact special provisions for the progress of women.

The women’s question today is no longer an issue confined to the position of women within the family, but also their right to equality with men in different aspects of social life. It is a broader question regarding socio political and economic development. In spite of various protective measures provided by the constitution, women in India have not been emancipated from the age old tradition and customs and therefore they are unable to play any significant role in overall development. 

As Indian society is trying to combine an ancient civilization with the progress of modern laws, the role of women has been more important for the overall development of India.

Muslim women in India are potential catalyst for development. Their emancipation may be a crucial step in the development of community. Their present status by and large reflects the dominance of traditional attitude. An improvement in their present day status will not only contribute in the progress and modernization of the community but also the development and modernization of entire nation.

The literature on Indian women in general is characterized by three broad tendencies; it ignores Muslim women and considers their status a product of personal law and assumes a sameness in the status and form of oppression, cross community, first the problem of omission with some important exception & most studies take notice of Muslim women.

The minority location does qualitatively transform women’s experience and perception in a very distinct way and change in their status and role is central to understanding the development of the community.
And since Muslim are in minority in India, their women’s position is even worse because there is an attempt to safeguard the community identity that generally prevent Muslim women to participate in development processes. One manifestation of this is, as pointed out in one study, that majority i.e. 69.75 percent Muslim women do not want to educate their daughters beyond the primary level of education. Further many middle class women who have requisite qualifications are not allowed to seek employment because ‘community respectability’ is likely to get smeared. This has resulted in general backwardness of Muslims and particularly Muslim women in India.

Sachar Committee report also highlights the role of community identity for the status of Muslim women. I says, “Women in general are the torch bearers of community identity when community identity is seen to be under siege. It naturally affects women in dramatic ways, women sometimes of their own volition sometimes because of community pressure, adopt visible marker of community identity on their person and in their behaviour. The community and its women withdraw into the safety of familiar orthodoxies, reluctant to participate in the project of modernity which threatens to blur community boundaries. It was said that for a large number of Muslim women in India today the only safe place (both in term of physical protection and in term of protection of identity) is within the boundaries of home and community”.

Education
            Education has always played a very important role in every society. It makes an individual to internalize the value and norm of the society and simultaneously offers the specific skilled persons to serve different functions in society.

The role of education in facilitating social and economic progress is well accepted today. Improvement in education opens up opportunities leading to both individual and group entitlements.

Muslims are at a double disadvantage with low level of education combined with low quality of education: their deprivation increases manifold as the level of education rises. In some instances the relative share for Muslims is lower than that of schedule caste and schedule tribes who have been victim of long standing caste system.

Committee has also analyzed educational attainment and deprivation level on the basis of quantitative and qualitative dimensions. Following indicators have been used to analyze the educational status of Muslims’ (I) literacy rate (II) proportion completing specific level of education (III) Mean year of schooling (IV) enrollment rate.

To discuss the educational status of Muslims in general and Muslim women in particular the data produced in census of 2001 is the main source of information. The data produced by 61st Round of National Sample Survey Organization is used for analyzing the educational status of Muslims and comparison has been made among various socio-religious communities. According to 2001 census the overall literacy is 65 percent; male literacy rate is 75.3 percent and female literacy rate 53.7 percent. Literacy rate in rural area is 58.7 percent and in urban area it is 79.9 percent.

Census of 2001 also indicates that literacy rate among Muslim is low i.e. 59.1 percent. The literacy rate among Muslim women is 50 percent. It is also found that female literacy rate is very low and they are educationally more backward as compared to their male counterparts. In states like Andhra Pradesh where Muslim literacy rate is quite significant, it is 68 percent as compared to overall literacy rate of the state (61 percent). They have larger literacy deficit vis-à-vis the average condition prevailing in the state.
A comparison across socio religious communities both by gender and by place of residence also reveal constantly lower level of mean year schooling for the Muslims community. It was also explored that the differential in mean year schooling between Muslim boys and girls is higher irrespective of rural or urban population.

Although the census of 2001 does not provide the data related to enrollment of children, data provided by National Sample Survey Organization and National Council of Applied Economic Research, Human Development Survey (2004-05) has been used to analyze the rate of enrollment of all socio-religious communities. The committee has also utilized the data produced by 61st Round National Sample Survey Organization (2004-05) and it is compared with 55th Round National Sample Survey Organization (1999-2000) to estimate the changes in enrollment and attendance of children over a period of time. It was concluded on the basis of data that the enrollment ratio has increased in all socio-religious communities. But this advancement is low (65 percent) among Muslims as compared to schedule caste and schedule tribe (95 percent).

As far as the enrollment ratio of Muslim female is concerned no statistical data has been analyzed.
The aggregate attainment level of education among Muslim in rural areas is often lower than those of schedule caste and schedule tribes. This is essentially because of the educational attainment of Muslim women in rural areas is lower than those of schedule caste and schedule tribes. The attainment level of education worsens in relative terms  when one moves from lower to higher level of school education. This difference is quite obvious in gender and place of residence as far as the Graduate Attainment Rate (GAR) is concerned.

Since independence the gap between Muslim and other socio-religious communities is quite widened steadily to a significantly high level. In case of Muslim women in rural area the overall progress in graduate attainment is very low which indicates that the females in rural areas are more deprived from higher education, specially Muslim female are educationally more backward as compared to males.

Muslims lag behind in terms of graduate attainment rate as compared to schedule caste and schedule tribes. This gap is more wide between Muslim men and women as compared to other socio-religious communities. Therefore, Muslim women are far behind as compared to men.

As far as post graduate diploma course is concerned except in post graduate diploma courses the percentage of Muslim girls is lower than Muslim boys in all courses.

The drop out rate is high among Muslims, because there is common belief that Muslims parents feel that education is not important for girls and it may instill wrong set of values. Even if girls are enrolled they are withdrawn at an early age to marry them off. This lead to higher drop-out rate among Muslim girls. The other reason cited for the high drop out rate among Muslim girls is related with the non-availability of schools within easy reach for girls at lower level of education, absence of girl hostel, absence of female teacher and non availability of scholarship as they move up the educational ladder.

Economy and Employment
            Availability of employment provides an individual and his/her family with purchasing power enabling his/her to acquire subsistence as well as consumption goods to satisfy the basis needs, comforts and leisure.

            To summarize the economic and employment status of Muslim workers at all India level data of National Sample Survey Organization (61st round) has been used.

            The economic status has been discussed on following basis:
1.         Work participation and employment rate
2.         Type of enterprises Muslims are involved in and location of work.
3.         Industrial and occupational desirability of the work force.
4.         The level of earning security of employment and employment condition. 
Work Participation Rate

Work participation rate provide an idea of the extent of participation in economic activity by a specific population. As national ability to find work is a function of assets and opportunities of work available, women belonging to well endowed households may not participate in the work available, because there is no compelling economic need to do so.

The work participation rate among Muslims is lower as compared to other socio-religious communities both in rural and urban areas. Aggregate works participation rate in economic activity by women is low in Muslim community. The work participation rate among Muslim women is much lower than that of women belonging to upper caste Hindu households where there are hardly any socio-cultural constraints in work.

Overall, 44 percent of women in the prime age group of 15-64 years in India participate in work force while 85 percent of men do so. However, on an average the workforce participation rate among Muslim women is only about 25 percent. In rural areas, 70 percent of Hindu women participate in the workforce while only 29 percent of the Muslim women do so. Even upper caste Hindu women in rural area have a higher participation rate which stands at 47 percent. The lower participation of women in rural area is partly explained by the fact that Muslim in general and Muslim women in particular are less likely to engage in agriculture. The work participation rate for women in urban area is even lower (18 percent), presumably because work opportunities for women within the household are limited. Such opportunities may be somewhat higher in rural area with ownership (though limited) of land.

As far as concentration in self employment related activities is concerned Muslims have fairly high concentration in self employment activities. Muslims share constitute 61 percent as compared to 55 percent Hindus engaged in self employment.

Muslims have very low share in regular jobs in large private enterprise and this differential is very high between Muslims men and women. The share of Muslim male and female in regular works in public and large private sector jobs is quite low as compared to other socio-religious communities. As compared to other socio-religious communities much largest proportion of Muslims (including both male and female) work in self owned proprietary enterprises in rural area. Similar trend is also found in urban area.
Participation of women workers in women-owned proprietary enterprises is significantly higher for Muslims. This implies that the prevalence of own account enterprises run by women is higher among Muslims than in other socio-religious communities. Muslim women are mainly engaged in home based economic activity. They are typically engaged in sub-contracted works with low level of earning.

Muslim women workers undertaking work within their own homes is much larger as compared to other socio-religious communities, while the larger engagement in street vending highlights the higher vulnerability of Muslim workers. Concentration of Muslim women in household work is related with constraints that women face even today. Traditional barriers in many cases still prevent women from going out of their homes to work.

The trend is more specific to Muslim community which limits the scope of work women can undertake and they often get in to very exploitative subcontracting relationship. Moreover, women with responsibility for household duties find it difficult to work outside their homes .

Muslim men have lower earning as compared to Hindus. Women in Muslim community have very low earning in public sector too. Muslim worker have lower earning as compared to Hindu OBCs, schedule caste and schedule tribes.

Muslim men and women are engaged in inferior jobs such as clerical or class IV employee as compared to Hindu men and women. When we analyze the Table- 10.9 of the report we find a very clear picture about the distribution of female workers by place of work for each socio-religious communities.

The data show that Muslim women constitute 4.0 percent as compared to 3.2 percent Hindu OBCs who are not having fixed place of their economic activity, while majority of Muslims engaged in economic activity inside their own dwelling which constitute 66.8 percent as compared to 52.1 percent Hindu OBC’s. Muslim females constitute only 6.5 percent as compared 12.4 percent Hindu OBC’s as for as their own enterprise is concerned. More Muslim women are engaged (constituting 6.9 percent) in employee’s dwelling as compared to Hindu OBCs (constituting 5.4 percent).

To assess the profile of Muslim women in regard to education and economy the data presented in Sachar Committee Report has been analyzed. The findings of the committee show that Muslims are at double disadvantaged with low level of education combined with low quality of education. Muslim women are educationally backward, and the drop out rate is significantly high among Muslim women as compared to Hindu women and their Muslim male counterpart.

As far as economy and employment is concerned the work participation rate among Muslim is lower as compared to other socio-religious communities Muslim women work  participation rate is much lower than that of Hindu women. The concentration of Muslims is higher in self employment activities and this share is significantly high also among Muslim women. Muslim women have lower level of earning. Therefore, on the basis of information given in the report it may be concluded that in general Muslim are economically and educationally more backward and the condition of Muslim women is very bad as they are educationally and economically more backward as compared to Muslim men and Hindu women.                   

Historic Travels of India

Much of our knowledge of ancient and medieval Indian history comes from the accounts of foreigners who as pilgrims, travellers and traders crossed the seas and difficult land routes to reach India. In their writings on their observations and experiences of a country new and strange to them, they left valuable contributions to the historical understanding of early Indian society. As outsiders, they found worthy of mention facets and facts about the country that native writers missed or often simply took for granted and hence ignored. They acted, often unwittingly, as agents of civilization contact and exchange, bringing with them new ideas, skills and technologies, and returning, in turn, armed with new knowledge as the harbingers of cultural and intellectual change.

Greeks Travellers: The Greeks who accompanied Alexander the Great in his Indian campaign, or travelled thereafter, recorded their encounters of this ‘mystical, magical’ land. Although much of their works were lost, the details percolated into subsequent Greek literature. The most notable of the Greek travellers was Megasthenes. Megasthenes (BC 350 – 290): The account of India written by Megasthenes is justly held to be almost invaluable for the light which it throws upon the obscurity of early Indian history. Though, unfortunately, not extant in its original form, it has nevertheless been partially preserved by means of epitomes and quotations to be found scattered up and down the writings of various ancient authors. Chinese Travellers: Chinese pilgrims played a key role in the exchanges between ancient India and ancient China. They introduced new texts and doctrines to the Chinese clergy, carried Buddhist paraphernalia for the performance of rituals and ceremonies, and provided detailed accounts of their spiritual journeys to India. Records of Indian society and its virtuous rulers, accounts of the flourishing monastic institutions, and stories about the magical and miraculous prowess of the Buddha and his disciples often accompanied the descriptions of the pilgrimage sites in their travel records. Fa Hien or Faxian (AD 399 – 413): Fa-Hien was the first Chinese monk to travel to India in search of great Buddhist scriptures. At the age of sixty-five, he travelled, mostly on foot, from Central China taking the southern route through Shenshen, Dunhuang, Khotan, and then over the Himalayas, to Gandhara and Peshawar. Fa-Hien was about 77 years old when he reached back home. In AD 414 he recorded his travels in ‘Record of Buddhist Countries’ today known as the ‘Travels of Fa-Hien’. It is an excellent geographic account of his journey along the Silk Route and the first comprehensive eyewitness account of the history and customs of Central Asia and India. His account includes the description of local Buddhist monasteries, the approximate number of Buddhist monks in the region, the teachings and rituals practiced by them, and the Buddhist legends associated with some of these sites. Hsuan-Tsang or Xuanzang (AD 629-645): Born around AD 600, Hsuan-Tsang was ordained at the age of twenty. Like other Chinese pilgrims, one of Hsuan-Tsang’s primary reasons to undertake the arduous journey to India was to visit its sacred Buddhist sites. Dissatisfied with the translations of Indian Buddhist texts available in China, he also wanted to procure original works and learn the doctrines directly from Indian teachers. In 629 A.D, at the age of twenty six, he commenced his journey across the Tarim basin via the northern route, Turfan, Kucha, Tashkent, Samarkand, Bactria, then over the Hindu Kush to India. In the 14 years he remained in India, he stayed in Kashmir for two years, in Punjab for about a year and a half, at Nalanda for five years, in Magadha for two years, with the remaining years in the Deccan and South India. Similar to Fa-Hien, Hsuan-Tsang narrated the Buddhist legends and miracles associated with the sites he visited and the Buddhist relics he saw. He explained the geography and climate, the measurement system, and the concept of time in India. He also narrated in detail the existing caste system, the educational requirements for the Brahmins, the teaching of Buddhist doctrines, the legal and economic practices, the social and cultural norms, the urban life and architecture, the eating habits of the natives, and the natural and manufactured products of India. The success of Hsuan-Tsang’s mission is evident not only from the 657 Buddhist texts he brought back with him, but also from the quality of translations he undertook. Islamic Travellers: The Muslims, who came to India as travellers, merchants and writers in the early medieval age and those who learnt from them, had likewise developed a deep sense of respect for its wisdom and science, so much that they, despite their radically different religious culture did not criticize idolatry and polytheism but looked at them with benign curiosity and took a romantic view of Indian priests and saints. At the same time they learnt from India astronomy, mathematics and medicine, among other sciences. Al Beruni (AD 973 - 1048): Born near modern Khiva in Uzbekistan, Al Beruni was conversant with Turkish, Persian, Sanskrit, Hebrew, Syriac (Armenian) and Arabic in which he wrote, and excelled in astronomy, mathematics, chronology, physics, medicine, mineralogy and history. He accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni to India and stayed on for thirteen years, observing, questioning and studying. The result was his monumental commentary on Indian philosophy and culture — Kitab fi tahqiq ma li'l-hind. Not for nearly 800 years would any other writer match Al-Beruni's profound understanding of almost all aspects of Indian life. He read the major Indian religious and astronomical texts and highlighted parts of the Gita, the Upanishads, Patanjali, Puranas, the Vedas, the scientific texts by Nagarjuna, Aryabhata, etc. Al-Beruni also recorded some of the more egregious plundering by Mahmud of Ghazni, especially at Mathura and Somnath. For obvious reasons he didn’t explicitly denounce it though his text betrays a definite sense of lament. He wrote that Mahmud "utterly ruined the prosperity of the country, created a hatred of Muslims among the locals, and caused the Hindu sciences to retreat far away from those parts of the country conquered by us to places where our hands cannot yet reach". Ibn Battuta (AD 1304–1368): Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Battuta was born at Tangier, Morocco in AD 1304. Starting out on a simple Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) at the age of twenty-five, Ibn Battuta wound up touring almost the entire Muslim world, from West Africa and Spain to China, India and the Maldives, a journey that spanned nearly thirty years. On his return to Morocco at the court of Sultan Abu 'Inan, Ibn Battuta dictated lengthy and pungent accounts of his journeys to Ibn Juzay which are known as the Rihla (literally, The Journey). On account of the Rihla, Ibn Battuta is considered one of the greatest travellers of all time. He travelled more than 75,000 miles (121,000 km), a figure unlikely to have been surpassed by any traveller until the coming of the Steam Age some 450 years later. Ibn Battuta's exact path through Afghanistan and the Hindu Kush is uncertain because he does not make it clear where along the Indus he came out. The Delhi Sultanate was a new addition to Dar al-Islam, and Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq had resolved to import as many Muslim scholars and other functionaries as possible to consolidate his rule. On the strength of his years of study while in Mecca, Ibn Battuta was employed as a qazi (judge) by the sultan. Ibn Battuta devotes numerous pages to the lineage of the royal family, the history of the country, the details of a variety of elaborately choreographed court rituals, the wars and revolts preoccupying the sultan, his extensive gifts to religious and political men and his ceremonies entering and leaving the capital. Tughlaq was erratic even by the standards of the time, and Ibn Battuta veered between living the high life of a trusted subordinate, and being under suspicion for a variety of treasons against the government. It took him years to reach his next intended destination, China, via Maldives, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Calicut. Other Islamic Travellers: Al Masudi, an Arab writer, visited India in the 9th century A.D. during the reign of Mihira Bhoja of Kanauj. His account gives information about the history of north India during that period. Abdur Razzaq was a Persian who was sent by Shah Rukh as ambassador to the Zamorin of Calicut. In April 1443, Abdur Razzaq visited Vijayanagar during the reign of Devaraya II. He was overawed with the size and grandeur of the city of Vijayanagar. He wrote, “The city is such that eye has not seen nor ear heard of any place resembling it upon the whole earth”. His narrative supplies valuable information on the topography, administration and social life of Vijayanagar at that time. European Travellers: Prior to Marco Polo’s travel to India in the 13th century, Western ideas about Asia consisted of a whole tradition of myths and fables. It was only when travellers beginning with Marco Polo returned to Europe with factual reports of their explorations that a new dimension of realism entered medieval conceptions of the fabulous East. By the 15th and 16th centuries more and more European travellers began to arrive in India for trade. They had heard of the great wealth in the East and wanted to cut out the Arab ‘middlemen’ with whom they had been doing business. The Portuguese were the first to find a direct trade route to India, arriving at the end of the 15th century. They were quickly followed by the English, who in addition to trade opportunities, found the prospect of travel and the ‘exotic’ unknown, very attractive. Travelogues, or travel diaries, were written by men wanting to capture all that they had seen that was new and strange to them Marco Polo (AD 1292): On his way from China to Persia, Marco Polo arrived on the Coromandel Coast of India in AD 1292 in a typical merchant ship with over sixty cabins and up to 300 crewmen. He entered the kingdom of the Tamil Pandyas near modern day Tanjore, where, according to custom, ‘the king and his barons and everyone else sat on the earth.’ He asked the king why they “do not seat themselves more honourably”. The king replied, “To sit on the earth is honourable enough, because we are made from the earth and to the earth we must return”. Marco Polo documented this episode in his famous book, The Travels, along with a rich social portrait of India. Marco Polo described the place as “the richest and most splendid province in the world”, one that, together with Ceylon (Sri Lanka), produces “most of the pearls and gems that are to be found in the world”. He wrote that the climate was so hot that all men and women wear nothing but a loincloth, including the king — except his is studded with rubies, sapphires, emeralds and other gems. Merchants and traders abounded, the king took pride in not holding himself above the law of the land and people travelled the highways safely with their valuables in the cool of the night. After the Eastern Coromandel Coast, Marco sailed up the Western Malabar Coast, but his observations were sparse, partly because most of the customs were similar. He noted the pepper and indigo plantations, incense, a date wine and further north, workshops for cotton and leather goods, shiploads of which went to the West every year. Vasco Da Gama (AD 1460 - 1524): Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese explorer who discovered an ocean route from Portugal to the East. He sailed from Lisbon, Portugal, on July 8, 1497. At the time many people thought that da Gama's trip would be impossible because it was assumed that the Indian Ocean was not connected to any other seas. Da Gama rounded Africa's Cape of Good Hope on November 22, and after many conflicts with Muslim traders who did not want interference in their profitable trade routes, da Gama reached Calicut on May 20, 1498. At first, da Gama and his trading were well-received, but this did not last for long. Da Gama left India on August 29, 1498, after he was told to pay a large tax and leave all of his trading goods. On his return to Portugal, he was treated as a hero and rewarded by the king. King Manuel I of Portugal sent da Gama, now an Admiral, on his second expedition to India (1502-1503). On this trip da Gama took 20 armed ships (anticipating problems from Muslim traders). On this voyage, da Gama killed hundreds of Muslims, often brutally, in order to demonstrate his power. After King Manuel's death, King John III sent da Gama to India as a Portuguese viceroy, which turned out to be his final expedition. He died of an illness in India on December 24, 1524; his remains were returned to Portugal for burial. Other European Travellers: Francois Bernier, a Frenchman, arrived in India during the reign of Shah Jahan and worked as a court physician to the Emperor for 8 years. He observed proceedings in the Mughal court first hand, taking note of its ‘multinational’ community and attitude of religious tolerance. His accounts also capture the historical infighting between Shah Jahan’s four sons, all eager to take the throne after their father. This led to a brutal war which Bernier witnessed and writes of in his key work, ‘Travels in the Mogul Empire, A.D. 1656 –1668.’ Afonso de Albuquerque (14??-1515) was a Portuguese soldier and explorer who sailed from Europe around Africa to the Indian Ocean. He was appointed the Viceroy of India by King Emmanuel in 1509. He forcibly destroyed the Indian city of Calicut in January, 1510, and claimed Goa for Portugal in March, 1510. Afanasii Nikitin (1466 – 1472), a merchant from the Russian city of Tver traveled through Persia to India and spent more than 18 months in the country. He left behind a detailed account of his stay in India and his experience of the famed Silk Road.

Nutrients

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are the body's main source of energy. There are three different kinds of carbohydrates. They include starch, sugar, and fiber. Starch is made from chains of small sugars. When these chains are broken down during digestion, we get energy. We get 4 calories from each gram of starch (or sugar). We do not get calories from fiber because our bodies do not break fiber down during digestion.

Plant foods like cereals, bread, rice, pasta, potatoes, plantains and corn are good sources of starch. They give us the energy we need to do daily activities. These starchy foods give us important vitamins and minerals, too.

Because carbohydrate-rich foods are usually low in calories, they can help us keep a healthy weight. When we add fat (like butter, sour cream or gravies) at the table or when we cook, we add extra calories and may gain weight.

Fat

Fat is a nutrient that is an important source of calories. One gram of fat supplies 9 calories - more than twice the amount we get from carbohydrates or protein. Fat also is needed to carry and store essential fat-soluble vitamins, like vitamins A and D. There are two basic types of fat. They are grouped by their chemical structure. Each type of fat is used differently in our bodies and has a different effect on our health.

When we eat a lot of high fat foods, we get a lot of calories. With too many calories, we may gain weight. Eating too much fat may also increase the risk of getting diseases like cancer, heart disease, high blood pressure or stroke. Health experts recommend that we should get no more than 30% of our calories from fat to reduce our risk of getting these diseases.

Fat is found in many foods. Some of the fat that we eat comes from the fat we add in cooking or spread on breads, vegetables or other foods. A lot of fat is hidden in foods that we eat as snacks, pastries or prepared meals.

We can reduce the amount of fat we eat by cutting down on the fat that we add in cooking or spread on foods. We can eat skim milk and low fat cheeses instead of whole milk and cheese. We can also use less fat, oil, butter, and margarine. Another way to cut down on fat is to drain and trim meats and take the skin off poultry. We can also read labels and compare the amount of fat in foods to make lower fat choices.

Protein

Most all the parts of our bodies are made from protein: hair, skin, blood, organs, and muscles. It is needed for cells to grow. It also repairs or replaces healthy cells and tissues. Protein in food gives us calories - 4 calories in one gram. If we do not get enough calories from fat and carbohydrates we may use protein for energy.

Protein is made of chains of amino acids. Amino acids are the building blocks of protein. Our bodies can make most amino acids. There are a few amino acids that we cannot make; so, we must get them from the foods we eat. They are known as "essential amino acids." Most foods that come from animals, such as fish, chicken, beef, pork, eggs, milk, cheese, and yogurt contain all of the essential amino acids. They are known as "complete" proteins. Plant foods, such as rice, dried beans, peas, lentils, nuts, seeds, wheat, oats, corn, may be low or lacking in one or more of the amino acids. They are considered to be incomplete proteins. Incomplete proteins can be mixed together to make a complete protein.

Cholesterol

Cholesterol is needed by our bodies for our cells, nerves and brain. It is also important in forming hormones and enzymes. We make all the cholesterol we need in our livers. We get cholesterol from the foods we eat, too. Since every animal has a liver, when we eat foods made from animal products (fish, eggs,chicken, milk, beef or cheese) we eat cholesterol. If we make too much cholesterol or eat too many foods that contain cholesterol or saturated fat, the level of cholesterol in the blood increases. The higher our blood cholesterol, the higher our chances of developing heart disease. Eating less fat, less saturated fat, and less cholesterol will all help lower blood cholesterol.

Cutting the amount of cholesterol we eat may only have a small effect on blood cholesterol. To cut down on cholesterol, we can eat more plant foods as sources of protein instead of meat. Eat legumes like black beans, lentils, black-eyed peas and kidney beans instead of meat and poultry.

Vitamin A

Vitamin A keeps your skin smooth and the linings of your mouth, nose, throat, lungs, and intestines healthy. Vitamin A is also needed for healthy eyes. It forms the part of the eye that helps you to see in dim light. People who do not get enough vitamin A may have a hard time seeing at night. This is called night blindness. Vitamin A may also help prevent certain types of cancer.

You can get vitamin A from both plant foods and animal foods. It is found in the fats and oils of these foods and is stored in the fat cells in your body. Dark orange and green vegetables and fruits like carrots, kale, turnip greens and other dark greens, broccoli, red and green peppers, pumpkin, sweet potatoes, winter squash, cantaloupe and peaches are all good sources of this vitamin. Animal foods, such as egg yolks, milk, cheese and liver are good sources, too.

B Vitamins

There are many different B vitamins, including thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine (B6), and cobalamin (B12). The B vitamins work together to help your body use the energy you get from food. Some B vitamins are also important in helping the body use protein from the diet to build new cells and tissues.

You can get enough of the B vitamins by eating a variety of foods from different food groups. Animal products like pork, liver, kidney, poultry, eggs and fish are the best sources of vitamin B6. Many plant foods like whole grain foods (brown rice, whole wheat bread and oatmeal) are good sources of pyridoxine. Some legumes and nuts like soy beans, peanuts and walnuts are other plant sources of this B vitamin.

Vitamin B12 is needed for healthy blood. It is found only in animal products. If you are a vegetarian and do not eat any animal foods like eggs, milk or cheese, you may need to take a supplement for this vitamin.

Niacin

Niacin is one of a group of vitamins called the "B vitamins." Niacin works with other B vitamins to help your body use the energy you get from food. It is also important to help use protein from the diet to build new cells and tissues.

Most kinds of meat, poultry and fish are good sources of niacin. "Enriched" grains, like breads, rice, pasta, cereals and other baked products are also sources of niacin.

Like other B vitamins, niacin is easily lost when foods are cooked or processed. When you cook rice or pasta, some of the niacin goes into the water. When you rinse rice or pastas you rinse off some of the vitamin. So to keep the niacin you need from these foods, it is important not to rinse the rice or pasta after you have cooked it. When you buy breads, cereals and other baked products, read the label to be sure it is "enriched" with niacin and other B vitamins.

Riboflavin

Riboflavin is one of a group of vitamins called "B vitamins." Another name for riboflavin is vitamin B2. Riboflavin works with other B vitamins to help your body use the energy you get from food. It also helps the body to use protein in food to build new cells and tissues.

Animal products, like milk, cheese, yogurt, beef and poultry, are good sources of riboflavin. Some green vegetables such as broccoli, turnip greens and spinach are good too. "Enriched" breads, rice, cereals and other baked products are also sources of riboflavin.

Like other B vitamins, riboflavin is easily lost when foods are cooked or processed. When you cook rice or pasta, some of the riboflavin goes into the water. When you rinse rice or pastas you rinse off some of this vitamin. So to keep the riboflavin you need from these foods, it is important not to rinse the rice or pasta after you have cooked it. When you cook vegetables, use only a small amount of water and keep the lid on the pan so that riboflavin and the other B vitamins are not lost. When you shop, look for breads, cereals and other baked products that are "enriched" with B vitamins like riboflavin.

Thiamin

Thiamin is one of a group of vitamins called the "B vitamins." Another name for thiamin is vitamin B1. Thiamin works with other B vitamins to help your body use the energy it gets from food.

Thiamin is found in many whole grain foods, such as brown rice, grits and whole wheat bread. White breads, pastas, ready-to-eat cereals and many other baked products are "enriched" by the manufacturer with B vitamins like thiamin. Baked beans, black beans, black-eyed peas, and peanuts are good sources of thiamin, too. Nuts, seeds and other vegetables, and fruits supply a small amount of this B vitamin. Lean pork is one of the best sources of thiamin. Organ meats such as liver, heart or kidney, are considered to be other good animal sources of thiamin.

Thiamin is easily lost when foods are cooked or processed. When you cook vegetables some of the B vitamins go into the water. If you cook vegetables in a small amount of water and keep the lid on the pan, thiamin and the other B vitamins will not be lost. When you rinse rice or pastas, you rinse off some of these vitamins. So to keep the thiamin you need from these foods, it is important not to rinse the rice or pasta after you have cooked it.

Vitamin C

Vitamin C helps form a cement-like material between our cells. We need vitamin C to heal cuts, wounds, and burns. When we don't get enough vitamin C the "cement" between cells loses its strength and can cause us to bleed easily. It may show up as bleeding gums or bruises. Getting enough vitamin C may also help in preventing certain types of cancer.

Vitamin C is found in many fresh fruits like the oranges, lemons, limes, grapefruit, cantaloupes, mangoes, papayas, and their juices. Vegetables such as bean sprouts, green peppers, plantains, broccoli and greens like kale and poke greens are also good sources of vitamin C.

Vitamin C is not stored in the body. When we eat too much of the vitamin we get rid of it in our urine. Therefore, we need some vitamin C every day.

Iron

Iron is a mineral that is an important part of our red blood cells. It is needed to carry oxygen from our lungs to our cells, muscles and organs. If we do not get enough iron, not enough oxygen will be delivered to our muscles and organs. Without enough oxygen, our muscles and organs cannot work properly and we will feel tired and weak.

Women are at risk of being iron deficient because they lose blood and iron during menstruation. Breastfeeding and pregnancy also increase a woman's need for iron.

We get a little bit of iron from a lot of different foods. The iron that we get from meat, poultry and fish is used easily by the body. Eggs, beef, pork, chicken, turkey, clams and oysters are all good sources of iron. Plant foods such as soybeans, lentils, kidney beans, spinach and leafy green vegetables, and flour contain iron, but it may not be absorbed as well as the iron found in meat. Iron from these foods is better absorbed when it is eaten with foods rich in vitamin C. It is best to get the iron we need from many different foods in our meals and snacks.

Calcium

Calcium is a mineral that is important for building strong bones and teeth. Almost all of the calcium we use in our bodies is for building strong bones. A very small amount is needed to help our heart, nerves and muscles work.

If we do not get enough calcium every day from the foods we eat, it is taken out of our bones. After many years of not getting enough calcium, our bones become very weak and brittle. Osteoporosis is the name of this disease. It can cause bones to break very easily and the jaw bone to shrink so teeth are lost. It can lead to curvature of the spine.

Older women are especially at risk for osteoporosis. By getting enough calcium from the food we eat all through our life, we can make sure our bones and teeth stay healthy.

One of the best sources of calcium is milk, and foods made from milk, like yogurt and pudding. Leafy green vegetables, tofu, and canned fish with bones are also good sources. Other foods, such as some brands of orange juice, have added calcium. We can read food labels to find how much calcium is in the foods we eat.

Sodium

Sodium is important for keeping a balance in pressure between the inside and outside of our cells. Too much sodium can lead to high blood pressure. High blood pressure may increase the risk for having a heart attack or stroke.

We can get some sodium, naturally, in foods, like milk and fresh vegetables. Most sodium in our diets comes from salt we add to foods during preparation or processing. We may also add salt and salty sauces to food at the table.

When we use less sodium and salt our liking for salty foods decreases over time. To cut down on sodium we can:

• Read labels to find food with less sodium.
• Taste foods before adding salt and then add less salt during cooking and at the table.
• Use spices for flavoring instead of salt.
• Use garlic or onion powder instead flavored salts like garlic salt or onion salt.

Folic Acid

Folic acid is important for making blood and building cells. It is also called folate or folacin. Folic acid is found in many food groups in the Food Guide Pyramid. Plant foods like leafy greens, broccoli, corn and whole grains are good sources of folacin. Cowpeas, lentils, kidney and navy beans are good sources, too. Some meat and milk products like eggs, liver, nuts, cheese, and milk are also ways to get this vitamin.

The need for folic acid increases during pregnancy because the fetus is constantly growing. If a pregnant woman does not get all the folic acid she and her baby need early in her pregnancy, the fetus will not develop properly. These babies may become deformed. Supplements with folic acid are usually given to pregnant women. Women who use oral contraceptives may also need extra folate.

The Chakma and Hajong Refugees

During the partition of India in 1947, the people of the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHTs) under present-day Bangladesh, sought to be a part of India and even hoisted the Indian National Flag on their lands. However, the Bengal Boundary Commission headed by Redcliff awarded the CHTs to Pakistan although 98.5 percent of the population of the CHTs was non-Muslim. The then Pakistan Government took a serious view of the hoisting of the Indian flag by the Chakmas and embarked on a series of repressive measures. Unable to bear the atrocities and faced with displacement on account of the construction of the Kaptai Hydel Project about 30,000 Chakmas and Hajongs migrated to India in 1964. They were settled in Arunachal Pradesh after due consultation with the local leaders by the Central Government of India under a “Definite Plan of Rehabilitation”. The Government of India extended all possible kind of helps including financial aids, employment, trade, license, book grants etc for proper establishment of their shattered life.

Historical understanding of the Arunachal Pradesh State

The recent history and the administration of Arunachal Pradesh can be said to date back to 1838 when the British extended their administration to the frontiers which now form Arunachal Pradesh. The administration to this area under that regime failed to meet the desired result due to absence of good communication. It was only in 1914 that the British Government thought of treating these areas as a separate frontier tract to be administered somewhat differently from the rest of Assam. Consequently, the Assam Frontier Tracts Regulation, 1880 was extended to the North East Frontier Tracts and the Tracts were declared as “Excluded Areas” of Assam. They were administered by the Governor of Assam through the political officer in his discretion.

When the Constitution of India came into force in 1950, another change was effected in the administrative set up. The Government of Assam was relieved of its responsibility of looking after administration of the “Excluded Areas”. However, the discretionary power was vested in the Governor of Assam, who served as the agent of the President of the Republic of India. In 1954, all these tracts formed into the North East Frontier Agency (NEFA). On the enactment of North Eastern Area (Reorganization) Act 1971, NEFA was made Union Territory of Arunachal Pradesh on 21st January 1972. On 20th February 1987, Arunachal Pradesh was made a full fledged state within the Indian Union.

Anti-rape Bill(Nirbhaya Act)

The Bill provides for not only stringent punishment for rapists and repeat offenders but also makes maiden provisions of strict punishment for offences like stalking, voyeurism, disrobing and acid attacks.

The Bill, which replaced the old anti-rape Ordinance, provides for even capital punishment for rapist if the act causes death for victim or leave her in a permanent vegetative state. Repeat offenders may also get death penalty under the new law.

Unlike the Ordinance, the Bill keeps rape as a gender-specific crime where only a male can be booked for committing such offence. It, keeps the age of consent at 18 in sync with Ordinance.

Social media

Human beings by and large are social. They feel an inherent need to connect and expand their connections. There is a deep rooted need among humans to share.
In the past, due to geographical distances and economic concerns, connections between people were limited. A social network is made up of individuals that are connected to one another by a particular type of interdependency. It could be ideas, values, trade, anything. 

Social networks operate on many levels. Initially social networking happened at family functions where all relative and friends would conglomerate under one roof. 

Social networking has always been prevalent; it is just that in these times the face of social networking has changed. Where earlier the process was long drawn, involving a chain movement where in one person led to another through a web of social contacts, today the process is highly specialized. 

Communication has been instrumental to a large extent to the growth of social networking. With the advent of Internet and the cell phone a lot of social interaction is captured through email and instant messaging. 

Today there are a lot of online social networking sites where individuals volunteer information about themselves and their social networks. Social networking allows for like- minded people to interact with another. 

An online social networking site is a place where a user can create a profile and build a personal network that connects the user to other users. What used to be just a niche activity has today taken the proportions of a global phenomenon that engages tens of millions of Internet users.

Online social networks are ideal for exchanging ideas, views, and garnering public opinion; although, these are restricted to the users of the social network. Popular social networking sites, like YouTube, Face book, Orkut, and MySpace are changing the Internet scene. Another social networking programme is that used by a company called Amway. 

The company operates on the system of multi level marketing. Members make new members and get monetary benefits on the purchases made by down the line members. Members sell the company’s products through social networking. And the members of the company itself constitute a large network, which members use for other businesses as well. The Amway model has been so effective that it has been copied by several other businesses. 

Social networking sites have recorded phenomenal growth rates. These networks allow individuals to leverage the connections they establish within the social network to achieve a broader objective like job search, a real estate search, a holiday trip plan, political campaign, etc. 

A social network allows independent artists, music labels and video content owners to upload share and sell their content to a community of users with interests in the particular media. Users in turn benefit by being able to sample, hear, download and share songs with friends and other members. 

Social network groups like Orkut help people get in touch with people they have lost touch with. They also help people to stay in touch despite their geographical distances. Social networking is important as far as an individual’s personal and professional development is concerned. 

The social network sites have emerged as a powerful and effective means for people to not only link and get linked but to use these services as effectively as possible. It is important to understand the considerable downside that exists hand-in-hand with the remarkable upside of using social media. Some of such risks are

·  Reputational risks.

·  Security risks

·  The legal risks

·  Intellectual Property and Media Risks

·  Defamation risks

·  Privacy Risks